Mosquitos, Sandflies, Ticks and Repellents
- Samuel Jones
- Jan 21
- 17 min read
Updated: Feb 27
Insect Vectors of the Caribbean
To promote public health and environmental awareness throughout the Caribbean archipelago, we should appreciate the origins of vector-borne, communicable diseases like Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya. On the one hand, the Caribbean is known for its crystal beaches, lush vegetation, picturesque sunsets and relaxed living, but it is also home to a range of insect arthropods that carry and transmit diseases (Vectors). Mosquitos, Sandflies and Ticks are some of the region's most noteworthy arthropod vectors. This blog will explore these vectors, the pathogens they spread, associated diseases, and their negative impacts on health and livelihood. Common preventative measures will be discussed, including conventional repellent actives like DEET and insecticides like Permethrin, compare their efficacies, health safety and sustainability profiles. In contrast, Biobased Repellents will be put into focus, as they leverage nature-based organic compounds found in Neem, Citronella, Eucalyptus and Rosemary. Finally, we will suggest Bee Propolis (a nature-based compound bees use to ward off intruding hive pests) as a potential repellent active for insect-repellent formulas (Biomimicry).
Up Ahead...
Understanding the lifecycles, regional varieties, habitats, feeding patterns and associated diseases of Mosquitoes, Sandflies, Ticks and Mites.
Mosquitoes (Culicidae):
Biodiversity studies reveal a rich array of mosquito species with Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes mediovittatus, and Aedes aegypti being most prevalent. These species are primary carriers of pathogens responsible for causing Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya, and Malaria. [1,2]
Aedes mediovittatus
Disease Transmission: Dengue and Chikungunya (under specific conditions).
Habitats: Mangroves, urban gardens, stagnant water.
Feeding Behaviour: Daytime feeder, peak feeding times are early mornings and late afternoons. Bloodmeals from humans and dogs mainly.
Known as the 'Caribbean tree hole mosquito', Aedes mediovittatus is a mosquito species native to the Caribbean that is both a nuisance biter and a vector of viral diseases. Found predominantly in areas with dense vegetation, this mosquito is known to inhabit regions ranging from tree trunk holes to mangroves to urban gardens where stagnant water serves as their breeding ground. As a diurnal (daytime) feeder, this mosquito species rises and sets with the sun, with peak feeding in early mornings and late evenings. While it is not as well-studied as Aedes aegypti or Aedes albopictus, research indicates Ae. mediovittatus could potentially transmit arboviruses (insect viruses), including Dengue and Chikungunya, under specific conditions. Its adaptability to urban and rural environments poses challenges for effective vector control in the region. Unlike other Aedes species, Ae. mediovittatus often displays idiosyncratic behaviours, such as feeding chiefly on human and dog blood meals, to a lesser extent on cats, cows, horses, rats, pigs, goats, sheep, and chickens. [3,4]
Aedes aegypti
Disease Transmission: Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya, and Yellow Fever
Habitats: Urban and peri-urban, small stagnant water containers
Feeding Behaviour: Daytime feeder, peak feeding times are early mornings and late afternoons. Mainly bloodmeals from human hosts.
Also known as the 'Yellow Fever mosquito', Aedes aegypti is one of the most notorious vectors of Zika, Chikungunya, Dengue, and Yellow Fever (ECDC, 2020). Thought to have originated in Africa and spread to the western tropics via the transatlantic slave trade. This species thrives in tropical and subtropical climates, breeding in artificial containers like discarded tyres, buckets, and flower pots with stagnant water. The adaptability of Ae. aegypti to urban environments has facilitated its widespread distribution across the Caribbean islands. In 2024, the region experienced a significant surge in dengue cases, with over 12 million reported in the Americas, including the Caribbean, marking a substantial increase from previous years (PAHO, 2024). Females are responsible for biting to obtain blood meals for egg production. This alarming rise underscores the critical need for effective vector control measures and insect repellent use for public health interventions to mitigate the impact of its spread throughout the region. [5,6]
Aedes albopictus
Disease Transmission: Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya, (occasionally Yellow Fever).
Habitats: Urban to rural settings, breeds in natural and artificial containers, such as tree holes, bamboo stumps, flower pots, old tyres.
Feeding Behaviour: Peak biting occurs in the early morning and late afternoon. It is an opportunistic feeder that targets humans, domestic animals, and wildlife.
Commonly known as the 'Asian tiger mosquito', is an invasive species that has established populations in the Caribbean. Recognized for its distinctive black-and-white striped pattern, this mosquito is a competent vector of several arboviruses, including Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya and Dilogilariasis. Unlike Ae. aegypti, Aedes. albopictus thrives in both urban and rural environments, breeding in natural and artificial containers such as tree holes, discarded tires, and water-filled containers. Ae. albopictus is primarily a daytime feeder, with peak biting activity occurring at dawn and dust. It is an opportunistic feeder, targeting humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. This behaviour enhances its ability to bridge zoonotic diseases to humans. Unlike some other mosquitoes, it is a persistent biter and often feeds multiple times in a single blood meal, increasing its capacity for disease transmission. Its presence in the Caribbean highlights the need for robust vector surveillance, control measures and the use of effective repellent formulations. [7]
Anopheles albimanus
Disease Transmission: Malaria.
Habitats: thrives in diverse habitats, coastal lagoons, mangroves, stagnant water.
Feeding Behaviour: twilight and nighttime feeder, with peak biting activity occurring during the early evening and early morning hours. Primarily feeds on humans, lesser extent on livestock and other mammals.
Anopheles albimanus is one of the primary Malaria vectors in the Americas, including parts of the Caribbean. This mosquito species thrives in various habitats, from coastal lagoons and mangroves to inland stagnant water bodies. Unlike many other malaria vectors, A. albimanus is highly adaptable and can survive in both freshwater and brackish environments. It is primarily a crepuscular (twilight) and nocturnal (night) feeder, with peak biting activity occurring during the evening and early morning hours. While its primary host is humans, it will also feed on livestock and other mammals. Anopheles albimanus is critical in transmitting Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum, the parasites responsible for Malaria, making it a significant public health concern. Its role as a vector underscores the need for effective mosquito control strategies, such as larval habitat management, insecticide-treated nets, and indoor residual spraying, and topical repellents. [8]
Culex quinquefasciatus
Disease Transmission: West Nile virus, Lymphatic Filariasis, St. Louis Encephalitis
Habitats: Drainage ditches, septic tanks, cesspools, and urban water collections
Feeding Behaviour: Primarily a nocturnal feeder, actively biting during the evening and night. Opportunistic feeding behaviour targeting humans, birds, and other animals.
Commonly known as the 'Southern House Mosquito', C. quinquefasciatus is a widespread species in the Caribbean and a vector of several diseases, including West Nile virus, Lymphatic Filariasis and St. Louis encephalitis virus. This mosquito breeds in various stagnant and polluted water habitats, such as drainage ditches, septic tanks, cesspools, and urban water collections like discarded containers. Its adaptability to human-made environments makes it particularly prevalent in urban and suburban areas. Culex quinquefasciatus is primarily a nocturnal feeder, actively biting during the evening and night. It displays opportunistic feeding behaviour, targeting humans, birds, and other animals. This feeding flexibility enhances its role as a disease bridge vector, as it can transmit pathogens between avian and mammalian hosts. The species’ close association with human habitats and its ability to transmit multiple diseases make it a significant public health concern in the Caribbean. [9]
Sandflies (Psychodidae)
Disease Transmission: Leishmaniasis and Sand Fly Fever.
Habitats: Swamps, mangroves, sandy areas, and forested regions.
Feeding Behaviour: Active from dusk to dawn, their stealthy and persistent biting behaviour targets humans and animals to obtain blood meals
Phlebotomine Sandflies in the Caribbean are small, blood-feeding insects that are vectors for diseases such as Leishmaniasis and Sandfly fever, caused by Leishmania parasites and Phleboviruses, respectively. These flies thrive in habitats near swamps, mangroves, sandy areas, and forested regions, often hiding in cracks, crevices, and under rocks during the day. Considered by many as the bane of Caribbean living, sandflies are active from dusk to dawn. Their stealthy and persistent biting behaviour targets humans and animals to obtain blood meals required for egg production. The saliva of sandflies contains anticoagulant and immunomodulatory compounds that facilitate feeding while causing irritation and allergic reactions in the host. The skin of bitten humans appears red-spotted and swollen, with an itchy irritation. Caribbean residents with compromised skin barriers, including Ezcematic and Fish Scale Skin, are often targets of these itchy nuisances, developing sores and bruises from over scratching. Their preference for specific habitats makes them a significant concern for public health, particularly in areas with high rates of Leishmaniasis transmission. Effective, broad-spectrum repellents are needed in the Caribbean to ward off these pesky, potentially dangerous critters. [10]
Ticks
Disease Transmission: Lyme disease, Anaplasmosis, and Babesiosis.
Habitats: Grasslands, forests, livestock enclosures, and mangroves.
Feeding Behaviour: Targets hidden, hard-to-reach regions areas of their hosts, especially of dogs, cats, cattle and the hairlines of humans.
Ticks in the Caribbean are significant ectoparasites (outer surface parasites) and vectors of zoonotic diseases that affect both humans and animals. Common tick-borne diseases in the region include Lyme disease caused by Borrelia bacteria transmission, Anaplasmosis caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Babesiosis caused by a malaria-like parasite called Babesia. The tropical environment of the Caribbean provides ideal habitats for ticks, like grasslands, forests, livestock enclosures, and mangroves. These habitats offer ample hosts such as livestock, birds, and small mammals. Ticks are obligate blood feeders, attaching to their hosts and feeding over extended periods, during which pathogens can be transmitted. Their feeding behaviour often targets hidden areas of their hosts, especially hard-to-reach regions of animals like underarms, back, behind the ears and tails, making them difficult to dislodge. Due to their role in disease transmission, ticks pose a public health risk, particularly for individuals working in agriculture, forestry, or outdoor recreation in the Caribbean. [11]
Harvest Mites/Chiggers (Trombiculidae)
Scanning Electron Microscope image of a Yellow Mite, © USDA.gov. Source: https://infinitespider.com/introduction-chiggers/ Disease Transmission: No known transmission of disease (within the Caribbean & North America)
Habitats: Humid and warm environments
Feeding Behaviour: they can attach to the skin of humans and animals to feed, often around skin folds such as the ankles, waist, or underarms. Feeding behaviour lasts several hours
Harvest Mites, are in fact the larval stage of mites in the Trombiculidae family. These ectoparasites are also found in the Caribbean apart from North America, where they are referred to as 'Chiggers'. Their ideal habitat are grassy areas, forests, and sandy regions. Harvest mites are sometimes confused with their closely related Ticks, as mites are microscopic, often needing to be magnified to see compared to larger, macroscopic ticks. While they do not directly transmit diseases, their bites can cause intense itching, inflammation, and allergic reactions due to the digestive enzymes they inject into the skin to break down tissue for feeding. Chiggers prefer humid and warm environments, where they can attach to the skin of humans and animals to feed, often around skin folds such as the ankles, waist, or underarms. The feeding behaviour of chiggers typically lasts several hours, after which they detach to continue their life cycle. While chigger bites themselves are not typically harmful in terms of disease transmission within the Caribbean, they can lead to secondary infections if scratched excessively. Skin bites have an onset of local redness, swelling and itchy lasting for days. The presence of chiggers in rural and outdoor areas makes them a nuisance for individuals. [12]
Preventative Measures to manage Insect-borne diseases
Preventative strategies for insect vector-borne diseases in the Caribbean should focus on reducing exposure to disease-carrying vectors and lowering the opportunity of creating breeding grounds. Effective measures include using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets and employing window and door mesh screens. Environmental management is crucial, such as eliminating standing water sources where mosquitoes breed, maintaining clean gutters, and covering water storage containers. Community-based programs emphasizing public awareness and education about vector control could foster a culture of reducing insect vector-borne transmission rates. Additionally, government-led initiatives, including regular insecticide spraying and health surveillance, further bolster preventative measures against diseases like Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya (PAHO, 2023).
Conventional Topical Repellents and Their Limitations
Chemical repellents like DEET, Permethrin and Picaridin have long been the mainstay for preventing vector-borne diseases. First developed in the mid-20th century, these compounds are effective against a wide range of insects.
DEET Overview
Petrochemical-based.
Developed by the U.S. Army in 1946 for jungle warfare.
Repellence between 2-12hrs (mosquitos, ticks, fleas, and flies)
Works by confusing the mosquito's sense of smell.
Literature reports on the health implications of DEET in adults and children show it to be benign when used appropriately.
Could be slightly toxic to birds, fish, and aquatic invertebrates, practically nontoxic to mammals
DEET In-Depth
DEET (N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide) is one of the most widely used chemical insect repellents, that has a fascinating origin. The compound was developed by the U.S. Army in 1946 in response to the urgent need to protect soldiers from insect-borne diseases (Malaria, Dengue, and Typhus) during World War II and subsequent military operations in tropical regions like Vietnam. These diseases severely impacted troop health and operational efficiency. DEET is a petrochemical compound derived from Toluene and refined through extensive testing on laboratory animals and human volunteers. Its ability to repel a wide range of biting insects, including mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, and flies, made it an indispensable tool in both military and civilian contexts.
Initially, DEET was made available exclusively to the U.S. military. However, recognizing its potential for broader public health applications, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) registered it for civilian use in 1957. Its widespread adoption coincided with increasing global travel, outdoor recreational activities, and the rising prevalence of vector-borne diseases. DEET’s mechanism of action is unique—it does not kill insects but confuses their olfactory receptors, making it difficult for them to detect humans as hosts. This property and its long-lasting efficacy contributed to its dominance in the market for decades. Literature reports on the health implications of DEET in adults and children show it to be benign when used appropriately, 5%-30%; when misused, users report skin irritation, dizziness and eye irritation. A disadvantage of DEET is that it can damage clothes and personal items by degrading fabric materials like spandex, rayon latex, and elastic, as well as plastics, rubber, and vinyl found in outdoor items like sunglasses and watchbands. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggests that DEET's bioaccumulation in the environment could be slightly toxic to birds, fish, and aquatic invertebrates and practically nontoxic to mammals. [13-17]
Permethrin Overview
Synthetic compound made to resembled a natural compound found in Chrysanthemum flowers
Insecticide that kills mosquitos mites, ticks (not mammals like Humans)
Can cause skin irritation or, in rare cases, neurological symptoms in sensitive individuals.
Highly toxic to aquatic life, including fish and invertebrates
Permethrin In-Depth
Permethrin is a synthetic chemical widely used as an insecticide. It is part of the pyrethroid family, synthetic derivatives of natural pyrethrins found in Chrysanthemum flowers. Pyrethroids are highly effective due to their ability to disrupt the nervous system of insects, causing paralysis and eventual death. Permethrin has been widely adopted for both agricultural and public health purposes, including crop protection, livestock pest management, and the prevention of vector-borne diseases. Permethrin is commonly used to treat clothing, mosquito nets, and outdoor gear to repel and kill mosquitoes, ticks, and other arthropods. It is particularly effective in controlling species like Aedes aegypti, Anopheles mosquitoes, and ticks that spread diseases such as Malaria, Dengue, and Lyme disease. Its long-lasting activity on treated materials provides prolonged protection, making it a preferred option in vector control programs in tropical and subtropical regions.
Chemically, permethrin works by targeting the sodium channels of insect neurons. It delays the closure of these channels, causing prolonged nerve excitation and ultimately paralysis. This mode of action is highly specific to insects, making permethrin relatively safe for humans and mammals when used in appropriate concentrations. However, caution is necessary, as exposure to high levels can cause skin irritation or, in rare cases, neurological symptoms in sensitive individuals. Despite its effectiveness, permethrin poses environmental challenges. It is highly toxic to aquatic life, including fish and invertebrates, and can accumulate in ecosystems if improperly disposed of or overapplied. Its environmental and health implications necessitate judicious use. [18,19]
Picaridin Overview
Also known as "Icaridin" or "KBR 3023"
Synthetic compound designed to resemble a natural compound found in pepper
Introduced in the late 1990s
Repellence between 8-12hrs (mosquitos, flies, ticks, chiggers, and sandflies)
Less odorous alternative to DEET while maintaining efficacy
Less likely to cause irritation or allergic reactions even when used at higher than recommended concentrations (opposed to DEET)
Picaridin In-Depth
Picaridin, also known as Icaridin or KBR 3023, is a synthetic insect repellent developed in the 1980s by Bayer and introduced to the market in the early 2000s as a 'safer' alternative to DEET. Chemically assembled to resemble a natural compound found in the pepper plant (Piperidine), Picaridin provides long-lasting protection against a wide range of biting insects including mosquitos, flies, ticks, chiggers, and sandflies. Offering up to 8–12 hours of protection depending on the concentration, Picaridin is a highly effective and reliable repellent. One of Picaridin's major advantages is its purported skin-friendly nature. Unlike DEET, it is less likely to cause irritation or allergic reactions even when used inappropriately or in higher concentrations than recommended.
Furthermore, it is odourless, leaving no greasy or sticky residue. Picaridin may require reapplication after heavy sweating or water exposure and, in some cases, might not perform as well as DEET against specific species. Picaridin does not degrade plastics, rubber, or synthetic materials like DEET, making it safe for outdoor gear and clothing use. Its safety profile is impressive, with approval for use on children as young as two months old and during pregnancy. Picaridin is environmentally biodegradable and considered less toxic to aquatic ecosystems than DEET. Picaridin’s combination of effectiveness, user comfort, and environmental benefits has made it a preferred choice for those seeking protection from vector-borne diseases, underscoring its value in global mosquito and tick-bite prevention strategies. [20]
The Shift to Biobased, Sustainable Repellents
The sustainability and wellness movement has driven innovation in nature-based repellents, promoting natural ingredients that prioritize health and environmental safety. These products align with the global agenda of reducing potentially toxic petrochemicals in consumer products. Traditional chemical repellents, such as DEET and Permethrin, have long been effective in protecting against disease-carrying insects but are associated with significant environmental and health concerns. These include potential toxicity to non-target organisms, persistence in aquatic ecosystems, and adverse effects on human skin and neurological health. As global awareness of these issues grows, there is an increasing demand for safer, eco-friendly alternatives that offer comparable protection without the associated risks.
Biobased repellents from natural plant extracts and renewable resources represent a promising solution. Essential oils such as Citronella, Eucalyptus, Neem, Lemongrass and Thyme, have demonstrated effective repellent properties, often targeting the same vectors responsible for diseases like Malaria, Dengue, and Zika. These natural alternatives are biodegradable and typically non-toxic to pollinators, aquatic life, and humans, making them ideal for environmentally conscious consumers. Balanced and carefully considered formulations that leverage these natural repellents could enhance biobased repellents' longevity and efficacy.
This shift also aligns with the principles of sustainable development by using renewable resources that minimize environmental footprint and contribute to the growing green economy. Their production often supports local agricultural industries, particularly in tropical regions where many of these plants thrive and where vector-borne diseases reign. Moreover, biobased repellents cater to individuals with sensitive skin or allergies, as they are free from synthetic chemicals and irritants. As biomimetic research and innovation in this field advance, the efficacy of biobased repellents continues to improve, closing the gap with conventional options and fostering a more sustainable future for vector control and public health.
Bee Propolis: As a Biomimetic Repellent
"Biomimetics, or Biomimicry, is a concept that seeks to emulate the strategies used by living organisms to solve human problems."
Bee Propolis, also known as "bee glue", is a resinous substance honeybees collect from plant exudates. Prop·o·lisis is of Greek aetiology, pro meaning "in defence of" and polis meaning "community”. Put together, Propolis translates to Hive Guardian. Classified as an oleoresin with essential oil and waxy-resin components, bee propolis is a natural sealant in hives, protecting against microbial invasion, temperature fluctuations, and intruding pests. Recent research has highlighted its potential as a natural insect repellent, attributed to its complex chemical composition, which includes flavonoids, phenolic acids, esters, terpenoids, and essential oils. These bioactive compounds are responsible for its antimicrobial, antifungal, and insect-repellent properties. Research indicates that Propolis exhibits significant repellent properties against insect pests, including mosquitoes, ticks, mites and termites.
A study published in the Technoscience Journal for Community Development in Africa (2020) examined bee propolis as a protectant against insect pests damaging stored grains in Kwara State, Nigeria. The study found that propolis effectively repelled grain-infesting pests, offering a sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides in grain storage. Further investigations into propolis as a repellent have shown its efficacy against mosquitoes. A study published in the South Carolina Junior Academy of Science (2023) assessed the effect of propolis concentrations on the repellency of Culex quinquefasciatus, a mosquito species prevalent in tropical regions. The findings indicated that higher concentrations of propolis resulted in increased repellency, suggesting its potential as a natural mosquito repellent. These studies highlight the promising role of bee propolis as a biobased, sustainable repellent, aligning with the global movement toward reducing harmful chemicals and promoting environmental health. [21-23]
A Healthier, Sustainable Caribbean
Transitioning to biobased repellents and adopting environmentally conscious practices can significantly reduce the adverse effects of conventional chemicals. This approach aligns with Isle Bee Well’s commitment to sustainability and wellness, offering products that protect against tropical vectors while preserving the health of our planet and communities. By choosing innovative, nature-inspired solutions, we can safeguard public health and the environment, paving the way for a healthier, more sustainable Caribbean.
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